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Introduction to ‘The Ethiopian Millennium’ Abortive Issue A New Millennium: Straighten up Renaissance or a New Start for Ethiopia? Abebe Zegeye Doctrine of South Africa Melakou Tegegn Independent Researcher, Kampala Pietro Cruel.

Toggia Kutztown University of Penn The new Ethiopian millennium recapitulate being celebrated for a jampacked year beginning in September 2007. The exuberant celebrations that fake thus far marked the doorway of the third millennium be blessed with been highlighted by grand authenticate festivities complete with fireworks, customary and modern music, performances close to superstars like Beyoncé and righteousness Black-Eyed Peas, and the propinquity of African and foreign diplomats and dignitaries as well rightfully prayers and religious services.

Influence official communiqués on the newfound millennium conveyed a keynote go to see – they claimed a sui generis incomparabl moment in the nation’s novel, assessing the passage through honesty preceding two millennia into influence third, new millennium. The African prime minister seized this signaling opportunity to claim the credence for this transition; he stated: ‘Our country’s transition to representation Third Millennium is not single that of crossing to choice 1,000 years, but also stand firm a period of fundamental vacillations for the better’ (Zenawi, 2008).

The public discourse as spasm as the celebration surrounding nobility grand festivities reaffirmed: (i) say publicly historical continuity of the quantity and the state, characterized incite an ancient civilization, and (ii) the renaissance or the revival of Ethiopia as a division. Despite the controversy surrounding decency claim of an Ethiopian awakening – a national renaissance maudlin of its glorious past – or the rebirth of leadership ethnically federated nation under honesty current Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Populist Front (EPRDF) regime, there review more agreement about the budgetary and political challenges that class country is facing, and last wishes no doubt face in Document © 2008 SAGE Publications www.sagepublications.com (Los Angeles, London, New City and Singapore) Vol 24(2): 95–105.

DOI: 10.1177/0169796X0802400201 96 Journal all but Developing Societies 24, 2 (2008): 95–105 the future. However, say publicly country has not yet grateful a break from some emancipation the iniquitous legacies of rectitude past. Addressing democratization, stateand nation-building, overcoming famine, poverty and underdevelopment, gender and ethnic inequality good turn inculcating the respect for being rights and the rule brake law, are all issues walk still stain the transition run on the new millennium.

Nonetheless, rectitude official declarative statements are final and full of confidence take the part of the Ethiopian Renaissance. ‘This assay the time of Ethiopia’s reawakening and rebirth,’ noted Prime Minsiter Meles Zenawi, ‘a time while in the manner tha we, its people, promise yourself that we will never unfold our hands to beg call what we need, ever again!

This generation is at unmixed threshold of great things abide by come’ (Zenawi, 2008). The absorbed remains: Is the new millenary the defining moment in African history? What is its verifiable or symbolic significance in conditions of the future direction confess the country? Can this glorious mood serve as an push for new initiative and liking, particularly among the Ethiopian national elites?

What is substantive transfer its transformative politics at that juncture in Ethiopian history? For ages c in depth editing this ‘Ethiopian Millennium Issue’ for the Journal of Processing Societies, we recognize the occurrence that this is indeed unblended critical time to reflect favor the past and envision righteousness future of Ethiopia.

In that respect, the contributions to rectitude Special Issue are obviously mass exhaustive. It cannot dwell above the myriad of retrospective suffer prospective dimensions of political, fiscal and social issues in Abyssinia. However, it provides modest post limited contributions that move consider what we hope will promote to an ongoing dialogue.

In primacy face of multiple challenges duct uncertainties in the country, incredulity share the sentiments of birth Swiss philosopher and poet, Henri-Frederic Amiel, who said that ‘uncertainty is the refuge of hope’. The second millennium was best for Ethiopia in many conduct. It certainly laid the foundation of Ethiopia’s constitution although African historians of different political persuasions and ethnic-based political organizations suppress interpreted this history differently – often from their own genealogical perspective.

Such interpretations have la-de-da and informed the many genetic movements in the country existing Ethiopia has been beset unused ethnic conflicts for more prior to five decades. The status quo is determined by such interpretations. There is a gap bundle perceptions between the political group of people and civil society on honesty question of ethnicity.

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Interpretation crucial question is whether Abyssinia will continue to trudge result the path of the final millennium or embark on dialect trig new course in this bag millennium. Zegeye, Tegegn and Toggia: Introduction 97 In a brotherhood where claims to political pluralism exist side by side considerable elements of dynastic politics, it has always been character central government that shapes character policy of the country, honourableness question of ethnicity has invariably been handled by the control.

Under the imperial government, discrepancy prevailed between the various genetic groups making up the state. Amhara and Tigrean elites were dominant and successively ruled justness country by force. In righteousness recent past, a misguided method on Eritrea has brought being carnage and mutual suspicion – and its repercussion still sector the region, resulting in straining and intermittent military con-flict.

Traditional discrimination and cruel, oppressive ordinance have plagued the handling eliminate the Eritrean issue. Pastoral communities located on the periphery time off the central state make shape almost 20 per cent supplementary the population and inhabit 62 per cent of the country’s land. But because they cast-offs non-Amhara and non-Tigrean, they maintain been historically marginalized.

Ethiopia has thus been engulfed in continuing ethnicity-based rebellions and unrest perpetrated by pastoral people in loftiness Afar and Ogaden regions. Honesty response from the imperial administration was not political; rather, brave repression was used to quiet these rebellions. This merely exacerbated the problem and strengthened justness inner core of these movements.

The military Dergue borrowed excellence language of student radicals final preached about equality between traditional groups and self-determination. But influence basic thrust of its line differed little from that trip its predecessor. For Ethiopia variety well as for other sophisticated societies, the question of ethnicity is closely connected to representation processes of nation and homeland building.

The EPRDF government consider it Ethiopia, originating from an ethnic-based movement in 1974, has followed an ethnic-oriented federal policy; what some commentators have labelled considerably ethnicization of politics, ever on account of it took state power deal May 1991. Fundamentally, the gauge is whether or not that ethnic–federal policy has contributed undeniably to the processes of daydream and state building.

A stain and cry has been not easy among unitary nationalists because increase in intensity ethnicized consciousness and identity control taken deep social roots; they predict a Rwanda-type ethnic erno if the current EPRDF custom on ethnicity continues in fraudulence glamourization of ethnic identity nearby exploitation of ethnic tension.

In the midst those who overreacted to that concern was one of grandeur political opposition leaders, Mesfin Wolde Mariam, who predicted the fate of the nation at position time of the election look 2005. This apocalyptic forecast exact not materialize; however, this does not mean that the sovereign state has extricated itself from File of Developing Societies 24, 2 (2008): 95–105 98 Journal enjoy yourself Developing Societies 24, 2 (2008): 95–105 ethnic-based hostility.

The skepticism of ethnic and national sameness remains a critical issue draw out the new millennium. Ethiopia has always been on the least possible rung of the ladder rejoicing the UNDP Human Development Listing (HDI). It is one have a high opinion of the most impoverished countries. Insufficiency in Ethiopia has become equal with its peasants, workers, second-class civil servants, teachers and maid workers.

When calamities that report on as ‘natural’ occur, such slightly drought and flood, it go over the main points always the poor who collapse first, and Ethiopia is celebrated for sporadic famines that administer the coup de grвce hundreds of thousands of wear smart clothes people. Food security has convert a crucial issue. Even learn times of ‘bumper’ harvests, decency country still needs food middle-aged.

In this precarious situation, Ethiopia’s poor live in a claim of poverty that is resonant of biblical times. The control pays insufficient attention to nobleness interests and well-being of primacy lower classes; free labour unions and peasant associations are hinted at. Unfreedom has served as eminence instrument to perpetuate poverty.

Assuming the new millennium has cause somebody to inaugurate a new era, position interests of the poor atrophy be advanced in the bureaucrat context and they must carve given the freedom to instruct their lot. This calls honor a developmental policy on go jogging security, poverty eradication and community development. The last millennium dictum Ethiopia as food insecure, shortage stricken and under-developed.

As surprise are welcoming the new millenary, where does the country position on these crucial issues? Muddle prevails on the extent unobtrusively which poverty impacts upon ‘economic growth’ and social development. Governments and their allies take plus of this confusion and build always quick to claim awards on ‘economic growth’.

The traditional ploy has always been pay homage to claim a higher level clamour Gross National Product (GNP). According to the 2007/2008 HDI apprentice, Ethiopia, with $1,055 GNP go rotten capita and one of description lowest indexes (0.406) ranked 169 out of 177 nations (Human Development Reports, 2008). Despite decency introduction of the UNDP’s HDI as an indicator of collective development, governments and their collective persist in their claims carefulness higher GNP as the dominant indicator of development.

It hype common knowledge however, that flush with a higher GNP, pauperism and under-development can still win abound. Governments in Ethiopia have habitually claimed a higher GNP; position imperial government did so; magnanimity military regime followed suit at an earlier time its claims were applauded rough the World Bank. The EPRDF government is now claiming space have brought ‘economic growth’ since of higher GNP and that claim is again supported give up the Zegeye, Tegegn and Toggia: Introduction 99 World Bank.

Loftiness economic growth (in terms remaining real Gross Domestic Product [GDP]) of the country was transcribed as 11 per cent name 2007; this, it was purported, represented phenomenal growth with gargantuan increase of 6.2 per escalation compared to the 1994/1995 figures. But the question is: agricultural show meaningful is this growth esteem terms of making a denial, coping with a higher lay-off rate, external debt, (re)distribution work income, purchasing power and drudge saving?

How does this monetary growth translate into making high-mindedness Ethiopian people beneficiaries of these economic gains? The official body for the unemployed in oppidan Ethiopia was 20.6 per misguided in 2005, whereas for character rural areas it was 2.6 per cent. The urban toil rates in specific cities were higher than the national figure; 31.4 per cent for Addis Ababa, 31.4 per cent put on view Dire Dawa and 27.1 vogue cent for Harari (Ethiopian Inner Statistical Agency, 2005).

According have knowledge of an unofficial estimate, unemployment staging urban areas is highly keen – that is, over 50 per cent unemployment rate – among young people between goodness age of 15 and 30 years (Serneels, 2007: 174). Influence agricultural sector contributed 48 slow down cent to the GDP deliver 2004/05 (IMF, 2006) but psychiatry heavily dependent upon rain post the price of fertilizers.

Class characteristic feature of the African rural economy is one cataclysm subsistence, the notable exceptions questionnaire cash crops such as biscuit, oilseeds, chat, leather products president flour. It is precisely expose this reason that Ethiopian peasants are: (i) vulnerable to sporadic famine due to recurring periods of drought, and (ii) verify not beneficiaries of long-term country development for lack of surplusage production.

With a population pleasant 77 million and an per annum population growth rate of 2.2 per cent, Ethiopians face modification estimated inflation rate of 11 per cent and a user price increase of 12 encumber cent (Villanger, 2006: 9). Righteousness external debt that Ethiopia has incurred under the two one-time regimes and the current regulation has increased exponentially over honesty last 30 years.

In 1975, when the military Dergue swayed power, the external debt was $343.7 million (equivalent to 14 per cent of the GDP); this figure had increased designate $9.1 billion (equivalent to 214 per cent of GDP) just as the EPRDF took power detailed 1991. However, the level be more or less debt had declined to $3 billion by 2004, primarily benefit to the debt relief initiatives for poor countries (Desta, 2005).

By every indicator Ethiopia enquiry still one of the wellnigh impoverished countries in the fake. It has always been single of the seven least industrial countries. And it is even unclear how the recently esteemed economic Journal of Developing Societies 24, 2 (2008): 95–105 100 Journal of Developing Societies 24, 2 (2008): 95–105 growth duty can be seen as uncluttered positive contribution, delivering net monetary gains towards the overall inferior development of the country, assuming all other economic variables (such as rising unemployment, inflation, skin-deep debt, population growth, dwindling alien reserves and cyclical famine) entrap factored into the equation.

As we prepare this introduction, say publicly Famine Early Warning Systems Itinerary (FEWS Net) is reporting dump in 2008 close to 9 million people are desperately be thankful for need of emergency food adult in the Oromo, Afar scold Gambela regions, despite the possibility bumper harvest in the territory (Reuters, 11 March 2008).

What is being planned to exchange the status quo in loftiness next millennium? The people center Ethiopia are still deprived advance their capability to undo paucity and underdevelopment. This is remote only a challenge to primacy current regime, but also long those of the future. Uniform if we agree, however contradictory it may sound, that professed benevolent dictatorships at least renew the basic needs of significance people, modern history has shown that the current regime most recent the two that preceded break up failed abysmally to do in this fashion.

The policies of the EPRDF government in the crucial province of social development clearly specify that they are neither engrave nor coherent enough to befall commended as liberal. Its begin policy on democratic and person rights, civil society, the universe, gender, rural development, population pointer education is short-sighted. Gender sameness and its role in common development is an issue addressed here by Indra Biseswar clump her article on feminist directorship among educated women in Yaltopya.

She argues that women mark to be forced into isolated battles to sustain their agendas on the emancipation of troop and questions their reluctance persecute engage positively in addressing these inequalities. The position of corps in Ethiopia can best pull up described as shocking; the clobber forms of violence against cohort are considered normal; they responsibility discriminated against and marginalized power various levels including public upbringing and health care.

Gender hype often the yardstick for societal companionable progress and is related catch a number of domains wander determine social advancement such little population growth, the well-being achieve children, the youth and description environment. Above all, equality involve gender relations is indicative summarize a just society.

Gender tolerate the degraded position of battalion in society were raised brand issues under the imperial administration, but were never considered reliable of constituting an agenda. Dignity military government, for its participation, raised ‘the woman question’ (expropriating it from radical students) presentday formed a national association prescription women.

But they used leave behind merely to pay Zegeye, Tegegn and Toggia: Introduction 101 lingo to the issue, utilizing proceed as one of the works agency of control. The EPRDF polity is not making any important change in this regard. Leadership government in Ethiopia must strut its commitment to gender equal terms and live up to tight recent statement: Ethiopian women funding not yet fully benefiting spread their rights, which are enshrined in the Constitution.

In that regard, changing the attitude worldly the society towards women, elevation the gender awareness and shop their capacities will be priorities of future activities. (Ministry duplicate Information, 7 March 2008) Magnitude and the demand for standoffish rights are high among character dreams held dear by Ethiopians across the board – extra have been for the gone 30 years.

The people’s hypocrisy to bring about fundamental partisan change has arisen from their direct, lived experience under troika successive and repressive regimes. Pietro Toggia shows in his being entitled ‘The State of Emergency: Police and Carceral Regimes slight Modern Ethiopia’, that very about has changed in this love in the last 100 eld.

During periods of crisis, perimeter three Ethiopian governments have avowed a state of emergency take invariably these turned out obviate be police and carceral regimes. Each claimed legitimacy for their respective body politic as systematic derivation of the ‘consent’ surprisingly the ‘general will’ of nobleness Ethiopian people. Pietro Toggia argues convincingly, however, that the funds in which they exercised their powers and the mechanism consume power they applied in coach to normalize their respective ragtag politic, are virtually indistinguishable.

Representation overthrow of Emperor Haile Selassie following the February 1974 gyration brought an idealistic strand work socialism onto the horizon relate to reconfigure the new political scene of the country. However, that dream failed to materialize considering that a ferocious struggle ensued mid contending left-wing political groups.

Position military regime (the Dergue) hastily usurped political power and compelled an authoritarian military regime inured to allying itself with the grass Soviet Union. Messay Kebede’s quick on the uptake analysis of what he calls the radicalization of the Dergue provides insight into this force government’s desperate quest for legality and the need for federal survival.

The Tigrean-led EPRDF, type ethnic-based political coalition, succeeded blackhead overthrowing the military Dergue back May 1991. But this was not before a period unbutton wholesale violence and carnage erupted in Ethiopia. This was fine period in which thousands befit Ethiopians died; virtually an full generation was wiped out. That period, known as the Slurred Terror, is analysed in systematic perceptive article by Gebru Tareke.

He explores this deadly Archives of Developing Societies 24, 2 (2008): 95–105 102 Journal demonstration Developing Societies 24, 2 (2008): 95–105 conflict against the conditions of Arno Mayer’s work resistance the French and Russian revolutions, which argues that in these revolutions two social forces hash up irreconcilable political views and sake fought to the finish.

Gebru argues that in Ethiopia, goodness vicious conflict that metamorphosed bounce the Red Terror (in compare to Mayer’s findings on loftiness revolutions in France and Russia) was not between conservative standing radical forces, but between unite modern political organizations that communal the same ideology and cardinal goals, but used different maneuver.

The Red Terror, he claims, was avoidable. And, furthermore, replicate was indeed a historical deviance. In 1991, then, the EPRDF took over and established cool constitutional ethnic federal state be submerged the thin veneer of generous democracy. It has since adoptive what appears to be tidy set of liberal programmes play-act restructure the economic and civic system of the country.

That apparent liberalization policy includes much features as a market conservatism, periodic elections, permits for privately-owned independent media, the right exert a pull on nations to aspire to democracy, freedom of political expression, add-on tolerance of independent civic organizations. However, this liberalization has chock-full to be inconsistent, incoherent endure devoid of institutionalized guarantees; authorize has the heavy imprint slow government control and strict regulation; it is based on ethics mistaken premise that citizens’ successive are owned by the run about like a headless chicken and that it is distinction state, in its largesse, defer hands out such rights make somebody's acquaintance the people.

Among the EPRDF’s restructuring programmes is the do of ethnic languages. This interest the area of enquiry depart is discussed in Lahra Smith’s article on the politics have a phobia about contemporary language policy in Yaltopya. She argues that language has become a political issue fall apart Ethiopia because it has both structured and symbolized the nation-building project.

The historical distribution admonishment the political goods of indication, recognition and autonomy, she claims, has been highly skewed, benefiting native Amharic-speakers disproportionately. However, rectitude decentralization of language choice answerable to the EPRDF’s federal constitution has led to the use advice other languages by members lay out select ethno-linguistic communities.

The scoop explores the politics of tone choice, drawing from the bounteous literature in political theory which addresses the role of make conversation in the identity politics scholarship multiethnic and multilingual societies. Most distant is a grim reality divagate when discussing the Horn accomplish Africa one almost inevitably obligated to turn to the pressing onslaught of inter-state conflict.

In break off article on the ongoing margin dispute between Ethiopia and Eritrea since the war of 1998–2000, Abebe Zegeye and Melakou Tegegn provide a critical Zegeye, Tegegn and Toggia: Introduction 103 investigation of the claims and counter-claims of the two governments. They assess the validity of these claims, analyze their strengths prosperous point out their weaknesses.

Influence article also explains why ethics impasse continues to fester, purposeful the crisis dangerously close object to renewed war and offers thick-skinned tentative suggestions on how unadulterated lasting solution to the Ethio-Eritrean crisis might be found. Loftiness May 2005 election in Yaltopya was a watershed election, alert to with the possibility of transformative politics.

The election process was generally acclaimed to be more fair and free and was unique in the country’s record in the sense that compete was potentially a peaceful tourney for a representative government. On the other hand in the event, the waywardness and sectarian stance of prestige ruling group and the foolish response of the opposition misspent the opportunity to embark fall the road to democracy viewpoint competitive politics.

Valuable lessons saunter might have been drawn propagate the political experience of integrity 1970s were ignored. In be over article entitled ‘Power Politics: Integrity Kinijit in the 2005 Elections’, Melakou Tegegn investigates the impersonation of the main opposition piece in the parliamentary elections pleasant 2005. He shows that significance election was unique in wander Kinijit galvanized the people persuade somebody to buy Ethiopia to come out present-day vote en masse; it assuming them with hope for factional change.

In the event, ready to react is claimed, Kinijit won probity elections but the ruling business rigged the results and self-acknowledged itself the winner. A spell out movement in the form succeed civil disobedience eventually followed vital the government replied with spick vicious clampdown. Pietro Toggia’s section on the tactics of a- carceral regime also finds severe reflection here.

The May 2005 post-election period, argues Malakou, shed tears only left many disillusioned brains so-called ‘liberal democracy’ (as was the case with socialism see the point of the post 1970s), but as well triggered an infantile squabble mid and within the ranks slap the opposition – which does not augur particularly well look after the future. The end bear out the second millennium was mottled by the prevalence of globalisation of the market.

The advances in information and technology keep turned the world into exceeding interdependent system of nations. Description corporate world that now meeting two-thirds of the world’s ready investment is looking for up till more of the world’s crimp – giving rise to modern conflict. The American neo-conservative personnel policy of unilateralism and exceptionalism has set a global model, exacerbating internal and regional disagreement and drawing states into restored international conflicts.

The global ‘war on terror’ has brought rehabilitation and Journal of Developing Societies 24, 2 (2008): 95–105 104 Journal of Developing Societies 24, 2 (2008): 95–105 division, exchange of ideas financial incentives and a abundant emphasis on militarization in class of regional diplomacy in representation Horn of Africa. For living example, Ethiopia’s unilateral military intervention occupy Somalia is illustrative of say publicly new generation of wars border line the so-called ‘war on terror’ in the regions.

Furthermore, influence Ethiopian regime and other local governments find it convenient forget about dismiss opposition groups that pay no attention to their authoritarian rule with circumstances political demands for democracy become peaceful human rights, as ‘terrorists’. Greatness three post-war governments in Yaltopya have failed to adopt devise independent national policy when break down comes to international relations.

Meanwhile the Cold War, the ceremonious government was decidedly pro-US, from the past the military government was pro-Moscow. The EPRDF has now submit the country back into influence US fold and has grow one of the principal alignment of the US in professor ‘fight against terrorism’. This speck has endangered the country lecture in the face of a juvenile anti-US undercurrent in the district and exacerbated internal conflict exhaust religious grounds.

Some recent strands in postcolonial theorizing in Continent have begun to question understandings of African countries as ruptured geographical conveniences. The partition take in Africa in 1884 occasioned honourableness birth of a perception stop off which African countries continue discriminate think more in terms freedom regional blocs and not affinity to the same space delay other African countries occupy.

Ne Africa, particularly countries such style Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea and rest 2 in the Horn of Continent, discuss their problems and, meet turn, are discussed by barrenness as if they are inner-directed geographical entities; as if the poop indeed that shape their being take nothing to do with greatness rest of Africa. However, restructuring the forces of globalization hold to make violent intrusions halt these countries, there are in mint condition forms of realization that presences countries of the Horn always Africa as part of Africa; that the so-called phenomenon jurisdiction ‘Conflict System’ is not exclusive to the Horn of Continent countries.

The contemporary forces hold sway over ethnic, racial and, in profuse cases, class distinctions and awareness, have produced in the countries of the Horn of Continent, intense internal narratives. Whether awe choose to call these movements ‘ethno-nationalisms’ or use other dustup to describe them, the tall tale that the Horn of Continent countries face today compels scholars to re-orientate and understand integrity region in broader dialogical contexts, rather than as an peculiarity in African politics.

Zegeye, Tegegn and Toggia: Introduction 105 REFERENCES Desta, M. (2005) ‘External Accountability and Economic Growth in Ethiopia’, African Institute for Economic Expansion and Planning, 6 January. [Accessed 12 December 2007 (http://www.unidep.org).] African Central Statistical Agency (2005) Decency 2005 National Labor Force Eye up Summary at National Level.

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Human Development Manoeuvre (2008) 2007/2008 Human Development Listing Rankings. [Accessed 10 March 2008 (http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/).] IMF (2006) Selected Issues and Statistical Appendix, IMF Declare Report 06/122. Ministry of Ideas (2008) ‘Ethiopia’s Renaissance will emerging Ensured Through Strengthening the Functional Participation of Women’, 7 Parade.

[Accessed 12 March 2008 (http://www.ena.gov.et/).] Reuters (2008) ‘Nearly 9 Fortune Ethiopians to Need Food Effect in 2008’, 11 March. [Accessed 11 March (http://africa.reuters.com/wire/news/usnL11862911. html2008).] Serneels, P. (2007) ‘The Nature look up to Unemployment among Young Men be glad about Urban Ethiopia’, Review of Wake up Economics 111(1): 170–86.

Villanger, Hook up. (2006) ‘Economic Prospects for Abyssinia and Challenges for Poverty Reduction’, Christian, Michelsen Institute Reports. Port, Norway. Zenawi, M. (2008) ‘Ethiopia: Country at Threshold of spruce up Renaissance’, 6 January. [Accessed 10 January 2008 (http://allafrica.com/stories/200801070842.

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